Empirical Logic and Public Debate supplies a large number of previously unpublished papers that together make up a survey of recent developments in the field of empirical logic. It contains theoretical contributions, some of a more formal and some of an informal nature, as well as numerous contemporary and historical case studies. The book will therefore be attractive both to those who wish to focus upon the theory and practice of discussion, debate, arguing, and argument, as well as to those (...) readers who are primarily interested in applications to a particular field, such as ethics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, or the history of philosophy. (shrink)

Resumo: A reforma na educação básica promovida Lei 5.692/1971, no contexto do regime militar pós-1964, teve como uma de suas consequências a exclusão da Filosofia do ensino médio. Em resposta, educadores, estudantes e entidades ligadas a essa área de conhecimento iniciaram um amplo movimento pela volta da disciplina às escolas. No centro desse movimento estavam os Departamentos de Filosofia de algumas das principais universidades do país, os quais promoveram encontros nacionais para debater e planejar ações voltadas a esse objetivo. O (...) presente artigo pretende discutir brevemente as considerações do I Encontro Nacional de Departamentos de Filosofia, realizado em 1981, no Rio de Janeiro, do qual resultaram o Documento do Rio de Janeiro e, mais tarde, o Documento de Brasília, ambos com grande repercussão na imprensa. O texto é parte da dissertação de mestrado do autor, defendida em 1991, aqui atualizado e adaptado para fins de publicação. Espera-se que a retomada daquelas discussões auxilie professores e estudantes de filosofia a enfrentar os desafios com que se deparam contemporaneamente. Palavras-chave: Ensino de Filosofia; Documento do Rio de Janeiro; Documento de Brasília; Filosofia no ensino médio. The movement for the return of Philosophy to secondary education in the post-1964 context: the first National Meeting of Philosophy Departments and the Brasília Document Abstract: The reform in basic education promoted by Law 5.692/1971, in the context of the post-1964 military regime, had as one of its consequences the exclusion of Philosophy from secondary education. In response, educators, students and entities connected to this area of knowledge started a broad movement for the return of the subject to the schools. At the centre of this movement were the Philosophy Departments of some of the main universities, which promoted national meetings to discuss and plan actions aimed at this goal. The present article intends to briefly discuss the considerations of the 1st National Meeting of Philosophy Departments, held in 1981 in Rio de Janeiro, which resulted in the Rio de Janeiro Document and, later, the Brasilia Document, both of which had great echoes in the press. The text is part of the author's Master's dissertation, defended in 1991, here updated and adapted for publication purposes. It is hoped that the resumption of those discussions will help teachers and students of philosophy to deal with the challenges they face contemporarily. Key-words: Teaching of Philosophy; Rio de Janeiro Document; Brasilia Document; Philosophy in secondary education. Il movimento per il ritorno della filosofia nell'istruzione secondaria nel contesto post-1964: il primo Incontro Nazionale dei Dipartimenti di Filosofia e il Documento di Brasília Astratto: La riforma dell’istruzione promossa dalla legge 5.692/1971, nel contesto del regime militare post-1964, ha avuto tra le sue conseguenze l’esclusione della filosofia dalle scuole secondarie. In risposta, educatori, studenti e associazioni legate a quest’area del sapere hanno dato vita a un ampio movimento per il ritorno della disciplina nelle scuole. Al centro di questo movimento c’erano i Dipartimenti di Filosofia di alcune delle principali università del Paese, che hanno promosso incontri nazionali per discutere e organizzare azioni in tal senso. Il presente articolo intende discutere brevemente le considerazioni del 1° Incontro Nazionale dei Dipartimenti di Filosofia, tenutosi nel 1981 a Rio de Janeiro, che ha prodotto il Documento di Rio de Janeiro e, successivamente, il Documento di Brasília, entrambi di grande impatto sulla stampa. Il testo fa parte della tesi di Master dell’autore, presentata nel 1991, qui aggiornata e adattata ai fini della pubblicazione. Si spera che la ripresa di queste discussioni aiuti i professori e gli studenti di filosofia ad affrontare le sfide che si pongono al giorno d’oggi. Parole chiave: Insegnamento della filosofia; Documento di Rio de Janeiro; Documento di Brasilia; Filosofia nell'istruzione secondaria. Data de registro: 23/01/2023 Data de aceite: 23/08/2023. (shrink)

This article argues that Matthew Lipman’s Philosophy for Children Program is based on a liberal conception of the relationship between education and society--a conception from which the idealist and non-critical character of his pedagogy derives. In order to demonstrate this, a short characterization of this conception is initially presented, emphasizing the equalizing and “redeeming” social mission that it entrusts to the schools. Afterwards, it briefly describes some of the main aspects of Lipman’s program, then explains the way in which it (...) incorporates the liberal doctrine of the “redeeming” school. Finally, it discusses some of the political and ideological implications that follow from this incorporation. It is important to clarify that the reflection here presented does not refer to any of the actual practices of philosophy with children, but to Lipman’s own position, which is developed in two of his most important works, Philosophy Goes to School and Thinking in Education. (shrink)

This paper is about the relationship between leadership, organisational morals, and temporality. We argue that engaging with questions of time and temporality may help us overcome the overly agentic view of organisational morals and leadership ethics that dominates extant literature. Our analysis of the role of time in organizational morals and leadership ethics starts from a virtue-based approach to leading large-scale moral endeavours. We ask: how can we account for organizational morality across generations and independently of the leader? To address (...) this question, we studied the leadership model of the Jesuits, a Catholic Religious Order. Our case reveals that a virtue-based model of leadership does not necessarily imply that those who are selected to lead the organization are themselves virtuous, but that the processes underpinning the exercise of leadership are cyclical and repeated as truthfully as possible. Virtuous leadership, for the Jesuits, is therefore about the construction of an ideal type of leadership against which the processes which sustain it were designed. Our theoretical contribution is twofold. First, we propose an habitual understanding of moral forms of leadership, in which the procedural is constitutive of moral forms of organising; second, we explain how “timelessness”, understood as the quality of not changing as years go by, allowed the Jesuits to centre the processes which sustain their ethical model on the repetition, across space and time, of said processes, rather than on their outcome. We conclude that the search for virtue might be more relevant for large-scale moral endeavours than virtue itself. (shrink)

Music can reduce stress and anxiety, enhance positive mood, and facilitate social bonding. However, little is known about the role of music and related personal or cultural variables in maintaining wellbeing during times of stress and social isolation as imposed by the COVID-19 crisis. In an online questionnaire, administered in 11 countries, participants rated the relevance of wellbeing goals during the pandemic, and the effectiveness of different activities in obtaining these goals. Music was found to be the most effective activity (...) for three out of five wellbeing goals: enjoyment, venting negative emotions, and self-connection. For diversion, music was equally good as entertainment, while it was second best to create a sense of togetherness, after socialization. This result was evident across different countries and gender, with minor effects of age on specific goals, and a clear effect of the importance of music in people's lives. Cultural effects were generally small and surfaced mainly in the use of music to obtain a sense of togetherness. Interestingly, culture moderated the use of negatively valenced and nostalgic music for those higher in distress. (shrink)

The rapid increase of industry-sponsored clinical research towards developing countries has led to potentially complex ethical issues to assess. There is scarce evidence about the perception of these participants about the ethical compliance, security, and protection. We sought to evaluate and contrast the awareness and perception of participants and non-participants of industry-sponsored research trials on ethical, safety, and protection topics. A Cases-control survey conducted at twelve research sites in México. Previous and current participants of ISRT as well as non-participants with (...) one of four chronic diseases, were asked to complete the survey which focused on ethical compliance and protection issues of ISRT, and the perception of participating in a trial. A total of 604 cases and 604 controls were surveyed. Cases significantly answered that ethics committees are aware of what is happening in studies, and that medical care of industry-sponsored research trials is better than their usual medical care. The same proportion of cases and controls thought patients must receive economical reimbursement for participating in a research study. The informed consent of the pharmaceutical clinical trial was fully read by 90.4% of the cases. Most cases were satisfied or very satisfied with their overall study participation. Previous and current participants of industry-sponsored research trials have a more positive attitude towards ethics committees, the quality of medical care of the research trials, and the main purpose of economical reimbursements, when compared to non-participants. (shrink)

Objeto del presente estudio es poner en evidencia que a partir de la obra de Descartes, en particular, de su doctrina del ego cogito, es posible articular los moldes de la moderna Teoría del Estado. Lo característico de esa Teoría del Estado es que la misma se torna deudora de las premisas gnoseológicas establecidas por Descartes. En efecto, la Teoría del Estado no formulada explícitamente por Descartes, ni por Kant, fue desarrollada recién por los neo-kantianos de Marburgo en el siglo (...) XIX, haciéndose ellos también deudores del racionalismo cartesiano, a través del apriorismo kantiano. En la base del presente estudio subyace un contraste algunas premisas metafísicas con derivación política, formuladas por Tomás de Aquino. (shrink)

La presente investigación pretende hacer un análisis histórico sobre la figura de San José y sus diferentes manifestaciones en la cultura y sociedad hondureña, como consecuencia de su culto, creación artística y devoción popular. Este culto tiene su origen en la época colonial, específicamente en el s. XVI, con los Concilios de Trento (1545 – 1563), Nueva España (1555, 1565, 1585) y Lima, Perú (1556 y 1561), los cuales contribuyeron a expandir el evangelio desde la iconografía hasta la fundación (...) de poblados que adoptaron esta imagen como Santo Patrón. También, se analiza esta imagen en el imaginario hondureño durante la secularización del Estado, su adopción y creación como un ideal de paternidad que simboliza protección, sustento y responsabilidad en la construcción de la organización familiar, finalizando con la vinculación de San José como patrono de la clase obrera en el siglo XX. (shrink)

This second volume in the Journal of the History of Philosophy book series (JHP Books) is devoted to the resurgence of skepticism in the Renaissance and after. It contains eight original essays by historians of early modern philosophy from Europe and North and South America, with concluding remarks by Richard H. Popkin, who reviews fifty years of scholarship on the history of early modern skepticism and evaluates its present stage. The essays uncover new material relevant to the history of skepticism (...) in the period and propose new interpretations of the nature, role, and influence of skepticism from Montaigne to Berkeley. The contributors discuss such important figures as Michel de Montaigne, Thomas Hobbes, Pierre Bayle, Henry More, René Descartes, Pierre-Daniel Huet, Pierre Gassendi, and George Berkeley. By indicating a number of new problems brought about by the early modern philosophers’ engagement with and reaction to skepticism, the authors of the important essays in this volume make a major contribution to our understanding of ancient and modern skepticism. (shrink)

En este artículo realizamos una meditación acerca de la subjetividad. La subjetividad a la manera pensada por Descartes fue criticada por Martin Heidegger durante sus primeros años de actividad filosófica, y se encuentra madurada en el tratado de Ser y tiempo. Si nuestra filosofía se presenta como una crítica a la Modernidad, nuestra crítica a la subjetividad moderna tiene que enfrentarse a la filosofía cartesiana. En primer lugar realizaremos una aproximación al problema desde La hermenéutica del sujeto de Foucault. Revisaremos (...) tras ello cómo se fraguó la subjetividad cartesiana y cómo se autolimitó a sí misma. Estudiaremos las aportaciones de Heidegger para criticar a Descartes en sus primeros años. Con su ayuda trataremos de demostrar cómo la subjetividad moderna es un producto artificial que viene motivado por la inquietud del mundo que, precisamente, Descartes pretendía superar con su filosofía. A modo de conclusión y de propuesta introduciremos los planteamientos de Jean Paul Sartre en El ser y la nada en los que la subjetividad es comprendida desde una óptica no moderna, al estar en realidad fundada en el otro. (shrink)

La filosofía cartesiana tuvo sus orígenes en el espíritu de la época del siglo XVII y en el entorno y contexto del Collège La Flèche, durante la escolaridad de René Descartes en las aulas de mencionado recinto. Dirigida por los sacerdotes de la Compañía de Jesús, esta institución impartía educación a la luz de la Ratio Studiorum. El pensador francés abandona las enseñanzas del claustro al desencantarse del sistema y del contenido de los conocimientos transmitidos por la mayoría de sus (...) maestros y se da a la tarea de buscar un método que le brindara los elementos suficientes para construir un sistema de pensamiento, el cual asimismo respondiera a las nociones e ideas que pretendía construir. El padre Denis Mesland y Descartes entablan una relación intelectual-epistolar y debaten las ideas filosóficas propuestas por el pensador. Mesland se ve obligado a viajar al Nuevo Continente a cumplir nuevas misiones impuestas por sus superiores. Este artículo tiene como finalidad ofrecer algunas luces que permitan dar respuesta, en alguna medida, a la pregunta: ¿Mesland, en realidad, enseñó filosofía cartesiana en el Colegio Máximo jesuita de la provincia de Santafé en el siglo XVII? (shrink)

Kierkegaard and the Challenges of Infinitude brings together a number of essays culminating the scientific events held during the duration of a project devoted to the translation and study of works by Søren Kierkegaard, which has been sponsored by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (PTDC/FIL/FIL/100.281/2008). The essays reunited here had their first versions delivered at an International Conference held in October 25-26th, 2012, under the auspices of the Centro de Filosofia da Universidade de Lisboa (Philosophy Centre of (...) the University of Lisbon, CFUL) and hosted by the Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa (Faculty of Letters of the University of Lisbon). The conference was commissioned by José Miranda Justo and Eisabete M. de Sousa, who also co-edited the present volume, together with rené Rosfort, who was the recipient of a grant as resident scholar in the Kierkegaard project during the three last months of 2012. (shrink)

Um dos grandes problemas que se estabeleceu nas discussões filosóficas, e não somente de ordem filosófica, mas também científica, é o problema da relação mente e corpo. O problema da relação “mente e corpo” teve seu momento de maior evidência no século 17 com o filósofo francês René Descartes o qual enfatizou que o homem é ser composto de duas substâncias distintas, uma material e outra imaterial. Tal pensamento tem se tornado o centro de discussões entre dualistas e monistas. Daniel (...) C. Dennett é um monista naturalista que contrapõe firmemente a postura dualista e suas extensões. A partir do pensamento desenvolvido por Dennett é que neste trabalho procurar-se-á mostrar a impossibilidade da existência de uma substância imaterial. E ainda apontar-se-á uma possível solução sugerida por esse filósofo naturalista da mente, bem como será também colocada a importância da fundamentação de tal teoria para os estudos filosóficos e científicos na contemporaneidade. E para tal fundamentação será enfatizado o importante papel da intencionalidade e da compreensão de consciência dentro da filosofia dennettiana. (shrink)

The evolution of medical reasoning is deeply intertwined with philosophical thought, beginning with Aristotle’s foundational work in deductive logic. Aristotle’s principles significantly influenced early medical practice, shaping the works of Galen and Avicenna, who made empirical observations that expanded clinical knowledge. During the Enlightenment, both inductive reasoning, as advocated by Francis Bacon, and deductive methods, as stressed by René Descartes, significantly advanced medical reasoning. These approaches proved insufficient when it came to handling uncertainty and variability in medical outcomes. Nineteenth-century figures (...) like William Osler advanced a probabilistic understanding of medicine. Karl Popper’s 20th-century hypothetico-deductive method, which introduced the concept of falsifiability and transformed scientific inquiry into a rigorous process of hypothesis testing, is a fundamental aspect of evidence-based medicine (EBM). EBM emerged as the dominant paradigm, combining empirical research, clinical expertise, and statistical inference to guide medical decisions. Looking forward, Bayesian reasoning offers a further refinement in medical reasoning. By incorporating prior knowledge and continuously updating probabilities with new evidence, Bayesianism addresses the limitations of frequentist methods and offers a more dynamic and adaptable framework for clinical decision making. As medical reasoning evolves, understanding this philosophical lineage is essential to navigating the future of patient care, where evidence must be both rigorously tested and individually tailored. (shrink)

Tendo como ponto de partida a obra de René Girard, o presente artigo pretende apresentar a dimensão antropológica presente na obra deste autor, destacando a sua originalidade e novidade ao pensar o homem como animal socialmente desejante. A teoria mimética, como Girard a formula, pretende ser uma teoria que, colocando no centro da sua reflexão o desejo e a imitação, permita compreender como se estruturam as sociedades arcaicas e actuais, partindo de mecanismos marcadamente antropológicos, para afirmar que as sociedades se (...) estruturam a partir do desejo, do sacrifício e da necessidade de existência de «bodes expiatórios». A partir deste pressuposto, o sacrifício é a primeira instituição humana, com a capacidade farmacológica de preservar a sociedade e de permitir a sua subsistência no tempo. A cultura, por seu lado, emerge a partir do desejo mimético; e o mecanismo do bode expiatório, mecanismo vitimário por excelência, regula a sociedade ao solucionar as suas tensões internas. Considerando estes três conceitos – sacrifício, desejo mimético e mecanismo do bode expiatório – este artigo expõe o modo como se relacionam estes conceitos. Apesar de constatar a sua presença e eficácia na história, Girard não os legitima de jure, desvelando o segredo da sua eficácia – a ignorância inocente das vítimas – que, paradoxalmente, persiste mesmo depois de denunciada nas suas escusas razões. Posto isto, perguntemo-nos: como proteger o homem da sua própria violência? (shrink)

Una de las novedades de la teoría mimética consiste en su mirada particular sobre el deseo humano y de sus despliegues en el campo de la literatura, asunto que ha sido materia de estudio por la filosofía, la antropología y la fenomenología. Buscamos a continuación explorar desde los insumos teóricos que se mencionan esbozar algunas ideas sobre la filosofía literaria y cómo estos mismo pueden ser brújula para orientar el lector en el estudio e interpretación de una obra literaria del (...) canon nacional: La Vorágine de José Eustasio Rivera. ¿En qué radica la novedad del planteamiento filosófico que se ha formulado en el presente ensayo? Básicamente en mostrar que la teoría mimética deriva en una filosofía literaria, que conecta con un análisis fenomenológico a propósito de cómo surge la violencia social a la luz de la expresión literaria. Para llevar a cabo dicho cometido, la propuesto se desglosa de la siguiente manera: en primer lugar, se propone una idea de lo que se entiende por filosofía literaria en relación con la apuesta del pensamiento de René Girard. Hecho esto, se procede a tematizar las relaciones entre fenomenología y teoría mimética en donde se profundiza en el análisis filosófico de los conceptos de la experiencia, el otro, la rivalidad, la vida y el deseo y la relación que guardan con la literatura. En un tercer momento, se propone el análisis filosófico que en clave mimética se aplica a la novela La Voràgine del escritor huilense José Eustasio Rivera. Finalmente, se propone en las conclusiones otros acercamientos a la teoría del deseo mimético y sus vínculos con el estudio filosófico de la literatura, de cara a la dialéctica del reconocimiento y sus intérpretes contemporáneos según la postura girardiana. (shrink)

I argue that inferences from highly probabilifying racial generalizations are not solely objectionable because acting on such inferences would be problematic, or they violate a moral norm, but because they violate a distinctively epistemic norm. They involve accepting a proposition when, given the costs of a mistake, one is not adequately justified in doing so. First I sketch an account of the nature of adequate justification—practical adequacy with respect to eliminating the ~p possibilities from one’s epistemic statespace. Second, I argue (...) that inferences based on demographic generalizations tend to disproportionately expose group members to the risks associated with mistakenly assuming stereotypical propositions, and so magnify the wrong involved in relying on such inferences without adequate justification. (shrink)

Law-enforcement agencies are increasingly able to leverage crime statistics to make risk predictions for particular individuals, employing a form of inference that some condemn as violating the right to be “treated as an individual.” I suggest that the right encodes agents’ entitlement to a fair distribution of the burdens and benefits of the rule of law. Rather than precluding statistical prediction, it requires that citizens be able to anticipate which variables will be used as predictors and act intentionally to avoid (...) them. Furthermore, it condemns reliance on various indexes of distributive injustice, or unchosen properties, as evidence of law-breaking. (shrink)

I argue that the offense generation pattern of slurring terms parallels that of impoliteness behaviors, and is best explained by appeal to similar purely pragmatic mechanisms. In choosing to use a slurring term rather than its neutral counterpart, the speaker signals that she endorses the term. Such an endorsement warrants offense, and consequently slurs generate offense whenever a speaker's use demonstrates a contrastive preference for the slurring term. Since this explanation comes at low theoretical cost and imposes few constraints on (...) an account of the semantics of slurs, this suggests that we should not require semantic accounts to provide an independent explanation of the offense profile. (shrink)

Several authors have recently suggested that moral factors and norms `encroach' on the epistemic, and because of salient parallels to pragmatic encroachment views in epistemology, these suggestions have been dubbed `moral encroachment views'. This paper distinguishes between variants of the moral encroachment thesis, pointing out how they address different problems, are motivated by different considerations, and are not all subject to the same objections. It also explores how the family of moral encroachment views compare to classical pragmatic encroachment accounts.

This is the first book in which contemporary scientists and mystics share with us-in their own words-their views on space, time, matter, energy, life, consciousness, creation and on our place in the scheme of things. The book is also the story of an American philosopher who-with these dialogues-ventures into ground-breaking territory, and of her search in America, Europe, India and Nepal for people whose work is at the center of our understanding of reality.

Written by a sociologist and a biologist and science historian, this text considers the social aspects of organ transplantation and chronic hemodialysis. Their research, begun in 1968, focused on the experience of research physicians engaged in this work, the "gift- exchange" social dimensions of these practices, and the impact of these technologies on society as a whole. This reprint of the 1978 edition includes a new introduction by the authors. c. Book News Inc.

This article investigates discourses of Sweden’s success in gender mainstreaming. Using the theoretical concept of myth, discourse analysis is performed on different categories of texts. The aim is to analyse how this discourse of success is constructed and to increase the understanding of its components. The themes identified in the reading include adaptation, integration, volume and initiatives. In conclusion, it is argued that a conflation of gender mainstreaming with gender equality has been a vital part of the construction of Sweden (...) as the best case of gender mainstreaming. (shrink)

In addition to protecting agents’ autonomy, consent plays a crucial social role: it enables agents to secure partners in valuable interactions that would be prohibitively morally risk otherwise. To do this, consent must be observable: agents must be able to track the facts about whether they have received a consent-based permission. I argue that this morally justifies a consent-practice on which communicating that one consents is sufficient for consent, but also generates robust constraints on what sorts of behaviors can be (...) taken as consent- communicating. (shrink)

In 1986, philosopher-bioethicist Samuel Gorovitz published an essay entitled “Baiting Bioethics,” in which he reported on various criticisms of bioethics that were “in print, or voiced in and around … the field” at that time, and set forth his assessment of their legitimacy. He gave detailed attention to what he judged to be the particularly fierce and “irresponsible attacks” on “the moral integrity” and soundness of bioethics contained in two papers: “Getting Ethics” by philosopher William Bennett and “Medical Morality Is (...) Not Bioethics,” coauthored by us. Gorovitz attributed some of the criticisms that bioethics was eliciting to the fact that this new, rapidly rising, and increasingly visible field had brought “scholars and practitioners together who otherwise would have little exposure to one another's disciplines. Their interactions are mutually enriching at times,” he declared, “but mutually baffling and even infuriating at other times.” In this latter regard, he suggested that “perhaps” Fox and Swazey's characterization of bioethics in the article he dissected “reflects a general revulsion at endeavors they see as inadequately like the social sciences or insufficiently respectful of them.” He went on to say that despite his objections to our “complaints” about bioethics—especially to our claim that “autonomy [had] been an unduly emphasized value” in the field—he had “a lingering sense” that there might be “a grain of truth” in them. Gorovitz ended his essay with an affirmation about the “benefit” that bioethics can derive from “responsible” and even from “irresponsible” criticism. “The unexamined discipline invites the philosopher's critical scrutiny no less than the unexamined life,” he aphoristically concluded. a. (shrink)

Approximately one in 10 children in foster care are medically complex and require intensive medical supervision, frequent hospitalization, and difficult medical decision making. Some of these children are in foster care because their parents cannot care for their medical needs; other parents are responsible for their child’s medical needs due to abuse or neglect. In either case, there can be uncertainty about the role that a child’s biological parents should play in making serious medical decisions. Here we highlight some of (...) the ethical challenges inherent in making these decisions for children in foster care, as seen through the lenses of a child welfare provider, an inpatient care physician, and a primary care pediatrician. (shrink)

: A perceptual theory of introspection is one that treats introspection as a species of perception or as a special case of perception. Additionally, a perceptual theory of introspection is one for which introspection shares at least some of the essential features of perception. However, I will show that there are certain essential features of perception that introspection lacks. Moreover, those features common to perception and introspection are insufficient to distinguish perception from belief. Thus, there is good reason to deny (...) that introspection fits a perceptual model of introspection. (shrink)

The problem of moral disagreement has been presented as an objection to contextualist semantics for ‘ought’, since it is not clear that contextualism can accommodate or give a convincing gloss of such disagreement. I argue that independently of our semantics, disagreements over ‘ought’ in non-cooperative contexts are best understood as indirect metalinguistic disputes, which is easily accommodated by contextualism. If this is correct, then rather than posing a problem for contextualism, the data from moral disagreements provides some reason to adopt (...) a semantics that allows contextual variance in the meanings of ‘ought’. (shrink)